=== === ============= ==== === === == == == == == === == == = == ==== === == == == == == == == = == == == == == == == == == ==== M U S I C T H E O R Y O N L I N E A Publication of the Society for Music Theory Copyright (c) 1994 Society for Music Theory +-------------------------------------------------------------+ | Volume 0, Number 7 March, 1994 ISSN: 1067-3040 | +-------------------------------------------------------------+ General Editor Lee Rothfarb Co-Editors Dave Headlam Justin London Ann McNamee Reviews Editor Claire Boge Consulting Editors Bo Alphonce Thomas Mathiesen Jonathan Bernard Ann McNamee John Clough Benito Rivera Nicholas Cook John Rothgeb Allen Forte Arvid Vollsnes Marianne Kielian-Gilbert Robert Wason Stephen Hinton Gary Wittlich Editorial Assistants Natalie Boisvert Cynthia Gonzales All queries to: mto-editor@husc.harvard.edu +=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+ 1. Target Article AUTHOR: Alphonce, Bo, H TITLE: Dissonance and Schumann's Reckless Counterpoint KEYWORDS: Schumann, piano music, counterpoint, dissonance, rhythmic shift Bo H. Alphonce McGill University Faculty of Music, Department of Theory 555 Sherbrooke Street West Montreal, Quebec H3A1E3 boa@sound.music.mcgill.ca ABSTRACT: Work in progress about linearity in early romantic music. The essay discusses non-traditional dissonance treatment in some contrapuntal passages from Schumann's *Kreisleriana*, opus 16, and his *Grande Sonate* F minor, opus 14, in particular some that involve a wedge-shaped linear motion or a rhythmic shift of one line relative to the harmonic progression. ACCOMPANYING FILES: mto.94.0.7.alphonc1.gif mto.94.0.7.alphonc2.gif mto.94.0.7.alphonc3.gif mto.94.0.7.alphonc4.gif mto.94.0.7.alphonc5.gif mto.94.0.7.alphonc6.gif mto.94.0.7.alphonc7.gif [1] The present paper is the first result of a planned project on linearity and other features of person- and period-style in early romantic music(1). It is limited to Schumann's piano music from the eighteen-thirties and refers to score excerpts drawn exclusively from opus 14 and 16, the *Grande Sonate* in F minor and the *Kreisleriana* -- the Finale of the former and the first two pieces of the latter. It deals with dissonance in foreground terms only and without reference to expressive connotations. Also, Eusebius, Florestan, E.T.A. Hoffmann, and Herr Kapellmeister Kreisler are kept gently off stage. ================================= 1. While Schumann's dissonance treatment is not a new topic, the response "no matches were found" from smt-search to my request for "Schumann and dissonance" served as an encouragement for this analytical caprice. ================================= [2] Schumann favours friction dissonances, especially the minor ninth and the major seventh, and he likes them raw: with little preparation and scant resolution. The sforzato clash of C sharp and D in mm. 131 and 261 of the Finale of the G minor Sonata, opus 22, offers a brilliant example, a peculiarly compressed dominant arrival just before the return of the main theme in G minor. The minor ninth often occurs exposed at the beginning of a phrase as in the second piece of the *Davidsbuendler*, opus 6: the opening chord is a V 4/2 with an appoggiatura 6; as 6 goes to 5, the minor ninth enters together with the fundamental in, respectively, high and low peak registers. Or it occurs at the accented culmination of a fast melodic wave as in mm. 136 and 138 of "In der Nacht," the fifth piece from *Fantasiestuecke*, opus 12 (an almost identical situation is found in m. 11 of Variation VIII from the *Symphonic Etudes*, opus 13). There is also the pivot function, as in Number 15 of the *Davidsbuendler*, where in mm. 43ff the C minor leading tone B is held over from the dominant seventh chord, itself equipped with minor ninth, and is intensified as the minor ninth Cb of the dominant chord of Eb major. Or the use as opening melodic interval, as in the Scherzo variant of the Clara Wieck theme in opus 14 or the show-off imitative counterpoint in mm. 2ff of the first *Intermezzo*, opus 4. [3] To a great degree Schumann's dissonance treatment is a reflection of contemporary practices. External dissonance -- linear components entering simultaneously with and conflicting with the chord -- occurs as metric suspension or appoggiatura, submetric appoggiatura, or simply as accented passing note, very often as accented chromatic lower neighbour. Internal dissonance favours the accented passing and neighbour notes, especially the chromatic lower neighbour. In these situations, however, Schumann characteristically does not work around harsh dissonances but tends to seek them out; typically, resolution notes clash with non-chordal notes. In most cases tempo and textures keep the degree and intensity of dissonance within the bounds of refined spicing that is a distinctive feature of Schumann's piano music. But sometimes the intensity is heightened. This paper looks at three contrapuntal situations where this happens: the linear wedge and two kinds of rhythmic shift. [4] The right hand part of Example 1 (*Kreisleriana*, opus 16, first movement, mm. 1-4) analyses into two chords per measure, each chord built by two triplets. The pattern is enriched by the half step motif that begins the piece and connects each chord with the next. The function of the motif as chordal or non-chordal is ambiguous and subject to interpretation -- no particular reading is consistent throughout the phrase. Now imagine the left-hand part pulled back an eighth note so that each of its notes supports the right-hand chord at the strong beat. Apart from the ninth on the first downbeat and the suspension chord at the cadence, linear dissonance is not a propelling force in this configuration. But when the left hand trails by an eighth, as it does in the actual music, the successive dissonances on strong beats: the ninth in m. 1, the seventh and diminished octave in m. 2, push forward more strongly than the harmonic progression alone (note that as harmonic dissonance takes over at the end of m.2, dissonances on strong beats become less pointed). Thus, the rhythmic shift changes an essentially homophonic passage into a kind of two-part counterpoint, not the classical kind but a counterpoint where one of the two parts is a composite of chordal arpeggios and the left-hand "suspensions" resolve by joining the new chord without concern for interval or direction. [5] In the consequent phrase the left-hand part too becomes chordal and the conflicts become more complex. It could be argued that the performer can reduce complexity by articulating the left-hand part away from the strong beats. But whatever the performer does, the listener is likely to hear what auditory stream theory predicts: two streams where dissonance conflict helps rather than hinders segregation. As in any tonal contrapuntal situation, the dissonances support the independence of the lines and the quasi-imitation brought about by the left-hand syncopation binds the two lines together enough to allow the common harmonic progression to remain intact. In other words, the "reckless counterpoint" caused by the rhythmic shift strengthens stream segregation and thus is a powerful way to reinforce the linear dimension of the harmonic progression. [6] The trailing left hand technique occurs in others of Schumann's piano works from the thirties, for instance in mm. 5ff of opus 10:2, but apart from experimentation with rhythmic shift and dissonance clashes in *Carnaval*, opus 9,(2) the discovery of its potential for forceful dissonance treatment appears to have come with the *Kreisleriana*. Striking ways of creating conflict between elements of different chords, however, are at the center of attention in the Finale of opus 14 which antedates *Kreisleriana* by about two years; in the discussion of Examples 6 and 7 we shall see chord and dissonance conflict at the full measure level. ================================= 2. See #18, the piece called "Paganini." ================================= [7] Example 2 (*Kreisleriana*, first movement, mm. 24-26) is included to show in the first place the remarkable contrast between the first section of the movement and the second with its downward arpeggios and pedal tones and its absence of chordal conflict even while the motion continues to be carried by the same triplet rhythm. Refined dissonant spice here results from the chords of the harmonic progression shining through a veil of pedal tones, Bb and F. But the passage also hints at a linear relationship that is exceedingly common in Schumann's piano music. While the upper voice (the slurred sixteenth pairs) makes oblique motion against the pedal, a couple of measures after those shown in the example a descending bass motion develops below the pedal Bb, the pedal gradually dissolves, and the upper voice maintains its register in short contrary motions against the bass until just before the cadence. The result is a wedge-like motion where one voice functions as a simple or ornamented pedal. [8] Even more pervasive than the oblique wedge is the contrary motion wedge. Every section of the second movement of *Kreisleriana* offers examples of some kind of wedge, in oblique or contrary motion or a combination of both; one of the most striking wedges begins in m. 17 where three voices engage in contrary motion extending from the interval of a sixth to the distance of a full three octaves, all of this happening over a pedal. In stepwise diatonic contrary motion there is of course always a point where a seventh and a ninth occur in succession (separated by a major or minor second -- and thus belonging to interval class 2 or 1 with their difference in dissonance quality -- depending on whether or not the octave/unison of the pair occurs on one of the notes of the tritone in a diatonic scale). The strength of the respective lines takes precedence over any resolution rules that may be embedded among the style criteria so that the notes are heard as passing notes. The effect of the successive dissonances then is a sense of momentary friction that adds to the vigour of the passage. With three voices engaged, Schumann takes advantage of this effect in characteristic ways -- and since this example was an afterthought and has not been included as a GIF, I must ask the scoreless reader to imagine the texture. In m. 17 the upper and the lower of the three moving voices make an exchange in stepwise eighth-note motion, the upper voice running from Bb4 to G5, the lower from G3 to Bb2 within the harmonic framework of a dominant seventh chord built on the pedal tone C. The middle voice runs essentially in parallel tenths with the lower voice but changes register twice: between the first two notes, Bb3 to A4, and the last two notes, E4 to D5. At the moment the third and fourth step of the outer scale segments have gone from minor seventh to major ninth, the middle and upper voices reach their seventh and go on to the ninth -- in this case the major seventh and the minor ninth. The leap in the inner voice after the ninth weakens the line and makes the dissonance stand out. Despite the brevity of the impression, this clustering of passing dissonances on the way to the culmination of the wedge (added to the vertical coincidence for a short moment of the pedal C3 with D3, E5, and F4) creates an exquisitely calculated contrast to the consonance and mild dissonance of the section as a whole. [9] A chromatic wedge either has two unison/octave points a tritone apart, surrounded by intervals of interval class 2, or has no unison/octave points but instead has successive intervals of interval class 1 at points a tritone apart. The first kind typically occurs in the omnibus progression -- and there are numerous examples of omnibus fragments in Schumann's music (the section beginning in m. 119 of the second movement of Kreisleriana uses the same kind of chromatic contraction and expansion as one finds in the omnibus progression). In fact, Schumann avoids the second kind and often also manipulates the diatonic wedge by some chromatic motion so as to avoid the seventh-ninth succession. Example 4 (Kreisleriana, first movement, mm. 15-17) shows a wedge with mixed diatonic and chromatic motion in both outer voices where the outer voices avoid interval class 2 dissonance; this, however, finds its way into the progression by a different technique -- see below. Clearly, if the upper voice in m. 16 had continued chromatically down over the chromatic bass, the minor tenth would have been followed by a minor ninth and a major seventh, but then one purpose of the wedge would have been lost: to retrieve D minor after a brief excursion into the Neapolitan region. The bass is chromatic for harmonic purposes: it includes the leading tones of IV and V in D minor; the right hand completes the harmonies. The effect is a clarification of harmonic direction as if coming from "somewhere out there" and gradually focusing on the goal. The use of this technique in chromatic harmony would be worth its own investigation; Max Reger, for instance, uses it frequently. [10] Even though the wedge construction in Example 4 itself bypasses sharp dissonances, they are there anyway. In contributing to the harmonic progression, the right-hand part is at odds with the left-hand part in a way that reveals another type of rhythmic shift; for want of a better term let me call it "chordal anticipation." This technique places a chord, or the better portion of a chord, rhythmically before the beat to which it belongs harmonically. A simple version consists of anticipating the entire chord immediately before playing it on the beat, as at the opening of the first piece of the *Davidsbuendler*. Rhythmically more elaborate versions tie the right-hand anticipation to the beat and mark the beat by the left hand as in the C major *Fantasy*, opus 17, second movement, mm. 92ff, or tie both hands into chordal syncopation as in mm. 84ff of the last movement of the same piece. Variants of chordal anticipation are numerous in Schumann's work, but the most intriguing version from the point of view of dissonance treatment is the one shown in Example 4: one linear strand arpeggiates before the beat and completes the chord on the beat while the other line joins the same chord on the beat. As a consequence, chordal elements are again out of sync so that the arpeggio towards the next beat creates a chordal conflict with the chord established on the current beat. Imagine the right-hand part pushed forward by two sixteenths so that each arpeggio begins on the beat and fills the duration of the beat; then the progression is just a normal harmonic wedge approaching the tonic. Instead, the chordal anticipation technique fills each beat -- traditionally the space for the chord supported by the bass line -- with chords that more or less contradict both the progression and the expected voice-leading. Obviously, careful articulation and weighting of the arpeggios in performance will guide the listener's understanding of the harmonic progression, but even so, the diminished octave E-Eb in m. 15 and the minor second G sharp-A in m. 16 will lend a distinctive character of linear dissonance to the whole passage. [11] What goes before the passage shown in Example 4 uses the same triplet rhythm but does not involve chordal anticipation; what follows immediately after it is a recapitulation of the opening material shown in Example 1. Thus, with its chordal anticipation shift the wedge passage mediates between a section without rhythmic shift and the recapitulation of the trailing left hand shift. The two types of shift are closely related and tend to have similar effects on dissonance treatment. As we shall see, things get more intricate when more than one level of harmonic progression is involved. But first let us have a look at a wedge with a different formal function. [12] Using a linear wedge to close a section or prepare a recapitulation is not unusual in Schumann's oeuvre. As an early example, consider the second *Intermezzo*, opus 4, where the second repeat section prepares both its own return and the return of the initial material in a new key by means of an omnibus-type chromatic wedge prolonging a dominant seventh chord. In the first movement of the Piano Concerto practically every return of the main theme is preceded by some kind of wedge; likewise, in the Finale of the F minor Sonata both returns of the main theme are prepared by a contrary-motion wedge. But wedges are used in a number of different functions, on a smaller scale for voice exchange within a prolonged harmony anywhere in a formal section, on a larger scale for theme construction, as for instance in the Finale of the F sharp minor Sonata, opus 11, where the wedge is one of the main voice-leading techniques throughout. [13] From the dissonance point of view an especially intriguing wedge is shown in Example 5 (*Kreisleriana*, second movement, mm. 100-106 -- beginning of the second section). Rather than closing a section, it comprises the contrasting middle section of a small ternary form and achieves the unlikely combination of decreasing space and increasing energy. Based on Litzmann's book about Clara Schumann(3), Peter Ostwald quotes Robert Schumann's word to Clara that "there is a thoroughly wild love in some of the movements" of the *Kreisleriana*(4). Without speculation on expressive connotations (I promised!), in terms of counterpoint this certainly is one of the wilder moments. Its basic material is given in Example 3 (mm. 92f -- the beginning of the first section of the same movement). This has some of the character of the trailing left hand but not unambiguously; the harmonies work either way, and the bass appoggiatura in m. 93 of course represents a dissonance treatment Schumann shares with most other romantic composers. The left hand imitates the upper line at the lower fifth in a stepwise descending sequence up to m. 96 but skips every other dotted rhythm. The only real argument in favour of understanding this passage as an example of trailing left hand shift comes on the downbeat of m. 96 where the bass line has reached a C over which the right hand plays a D major arpeggio. Even though the harmonic context suggests the function of the harmony as V 4/2, the bass C is simply abandoned for a D and the phrase ends on an emphatically tonicized D major harmony. Abandoning an exposed harmonic dissonance is unproblematic if the left-hand part is understood as trailing the harmonic progression by a beat, but this reading is ambiguous at best. ================================= 3. Litzmann, Berthold. 1925. *Clara Schumann, Ein Kuenstlerleben*. 7th ed. 3 vols. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Haertel. 4. Ostwald Peter. 1985. *Schumann, Music and Madness*. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd. The quotation is from vol. 1, p. 224 of Litzmann's book. ================================= [14] In Example 5 questions of rhythmic shift become entirely irrelevant since here linear progression supersedes harmonic progression during the ascent until D minor is retrieved at the climax in m. 106. The linear framework exhibits rhythmic imitation and quasi-inversional melodic imitation. But the upper line moves up by step from measure to measure so, remarkably, the wedge is shaped by two ascending lines: the upper line moving mostly by whole steps while the lower line catches up by minor thirds (filled in by chromatic motion) and the interval between the two lines becomes gradually narrower. From one accented second beat to the next the interval shrinks from diminished twelfth over diminished eleventh and minor tenth to major ninth; at this point the approach is halted and an exchange of major ninth and minor seventh moves up by whole step to the climax. This indeed is dissonance with little preparation and scant resolution and would be passed off in any traditional text as reckless counterpoint. Dissonance here seems to function at a new and different level: it is not a moment-to-moment event but a gradually increasing intensity over the length of the phrase followed by a gradual decrease (mm. 107 and 108 echo the minor ninth appoggiatura from m. 93). Resolution at this level occurs only in m. 110 where the two lines move in parallel octaves down to a recapitulation of the first section. [15] Now, what happens when chordal anticipation in oblique motion is imitated, so that two compound lines create a counterpoint that moves in sequence over a pedal? One of my earliest acquaintances with Schumann was his *Grande Sonate* in F minor, opus 14, which I stumbled through as a teenager and whose last movement I found terribly boring and in part ugly. A little bit of the "ugly" stuff is shown in Example 6 (*Grande Sonate* F minor, opus 14, last movement, mm. 46-50). The material on which this passage is based comes from mm. 9-10 where it follows immediately after the main theme. It is identical to the arpeggio figures in mm. 46-47, except that the last two arpeggios in the second measure are C3 G3 E4 and F3 Ab3 with F4 on the downbeat of the third measure ending the phrase. In performance it should be articulated as chordal anticipation so as to avoid harmonic confusion at the major seventh leap E4 F3. Yet, the dissonant leap will make its impression and will foreshadow the character of those later sections where this material is used. Taken separately, the two entries in mm. 46 and 48 seem to move in Eb major and C minor, respectively, each ending on a half-measure suspension, although it is only when the third entry comes in on Ab that the second ending is made dissonant. The effect of the second entry is to change the Eb harmony into first inversion C minor -- unless one is capable of hearing the two strands separately as a bitonal or bichordal progression. The voice-leading B to C in the first two right-hand arpeggios in m. 48 against the left-hand suspension F to Eb promises a resolution to C minor so strongly that I hear the G-major chord as a large suspension chord rather than as an independent harmony. In either case there is a chordal conflict due to the late arrival of the C minor triad in the right-hand part. It seems then that two rhythmic shifts are at work simultaneously, but at different levels: chordal anticipation at the beat level and the displacement of the expected harmony in the right-hand part at the measure level. The effect of the third entry is to alter the expected F minor harmony so that it functions as part of a Bb major ninth chord, supported by the large-scale pedal note, Bb2. [16] When the two compound parts -- the left hand and the right hand -- sound together, the amount of dissonance is considerable, but dissonance treatment here stays well within traditional practice. The double-entry progression is sequenced a third up as indicated by the entry on Ab in m. 50 and again another third up in m. 54 while the pedal Bb is refreshed regularly. By starting on successively higher scale steps the six entries together unfold a major sixth from F to D, i.e. the fifth and third of the overall prolonged Bb harmony. When the upper line reaches D6 over the pedal note, the third sequence is curtailed and the line descends, supported by parallel sixth chords, through the dominant seventh note Ab to resolve by suspension Ab to G over Eb at the point where Example 7 begins. [17] In Example 7 (*Grande Sonate* F minor, last movement, mm. 60-63) the chordal conflict extends over not just one but two measures. While the triplet motion now is fragmented and repeated, creating shorter units, the two measures are held together by the eighth-note arpeggio figures that spell out a C minor chord with downbeat appoggiatura dissonance (craftily supported by the "wrong" harmony in the chordal anticipation part). Again the expected Eb harmony is transformed into first inversion C minor; imitation now takes place in invertible counterpoint a fifth down, spelling out a root position F minor chord; thus, the underlying structure is a 6 5 linear intervallic pattern -- not the figured-bass motion where the upper line descends but the "inverted" kind where the bass ascends. This is again sequenced upward and is curtailed when it has reached the Eb major sixth chord. [18] While in these two passages the counterpoint is perfectly passable as far as dissonance treatment is concerned, it is the harmonic conflicts that make them sound like reckless counterpoint. At this level, then, the sense of heightened dissonance intensity is not so much a question of dissonant intervals as of conflicting chords. By techniques that are bold and advanced for his time, Schumann has achieved a sound that is not only uncharacteristic of early Romantic music but even un-Schumannesque. While I no longer find these progressions ugly but instead exciting and refreshing, their particular sound seems more akin to that of some works in the 20th-century neoclassicist and "neue Sachlichkeit" tradition, the environment where the phrase "reckless counterpoint" was originally coined. [19] This essay has discussed a few style features from Schumann's early piano music and, in particular, different combinations of features. The fact that some combinations occur in a work that stands out as the quintessence of Schumannesque sound, the *Kreisleriana*, while others contribute to a sound that strikes the listener as peripheral to Schumann's style, brings up a central question that the ongoing project must address: the question of what features a given composer shares with what groups of other composers over what spans of time and within what regions of space, and what features are exclusive to that composer. It also serves as a reminder that questions of style delimitation are highly complex and probably have to do with intricately combined and continuously recombined features of both distant heritage and spontaneous creation. =========================================== 2. Commentaries AUTHOR: James Harley TITLE: Comment on Steven Smoliar's article KEYWORDS: Smoliar, computer music REFERENCE: mto.94.0.6.smoliar.art James Harley Faculty of Music McGill University 555 Sherbrooke West Montreal, QC, CANADA H3A 1E3 jih@music.mcgill.ca [1] I have been working in the area of "composition with computers" for some time now, so it was with interest that I read Steven Smoliar's article on the subject (1). I have not had a chance to see the publication that it originally appeared in (2), and therefore have perhaps read his work slightly out of context. Nonetheless, I think it is useful to comment upon a few of the issues which Smoliar raises. [2] First of all, the abstract for this article makes general claims that are not substantiated in the body of the article. The rather ambitious opening, "this is an examination of the current state of the art in the computer composition of music," is fleshed out with a discussion of just one application, that of David Cope's EMI Project, with a passing reference to a single issue devoted to computer-generated music of the IEEE Computer Society *Computer* magazine. Cope's work is admirable, and certainly worthy of discussion, but we are here given no reasons as to why it is that his work "best characterizes the current state of the art." In fact, I would argue that his "recombinant" music is not "composition" at all, but "re-creation" or "style imitation," and hardly representative of original, creative work being done in the field, even by David Cope himself. In fact, there is an enormous range of work being done in the domain of "computer composition," from Ames and Barlow to Xenakis and Zicarelli. These composer-researchers are attempting to implement models of their own compositional "systems," such that the computer will be able to generate truly "contemporary music in a style which reflects the musical understanding or interests of the program designer (or, in certain cases, the user). Surely, in order to answer the question of "whether artificial intelligence has now solved the problem of turning a computer into a successful composer," one would have to look at the "creative" work being done, and not just the "re-combinant." [3] Smoliar also raises the question as to whether the success of Cope's EMI system is due to Cope's own practical experience as a composer rather than its own "theoretical" knowledge (as he puts it, "just *who* is doing the composing[?]"). It may be useful to clarify the distinction between "theoretical" and "practical" knowledge here. There is an implication in this that the experienced composer knows how to obtain effective results in the concert hall without needing to be concerned with "theory." I think the real issue is whether one criticizes the computer program for not reflecting specific theoretical concerns or constructs, or whether one criticizes the musical output of the program for its musical-stylistic integrity. The criteria which Smoliar seems to use to judge the alleged computer-composer is the presence of "deep structure," as opposed to merely "surface structure." However, it is only possible to evaluate the work on this basis because it is "style imitation" rather than original work. Other aesthetic and theoretical issues must be articulated in order to judge the output of, say, Xenakis's computer program, just as they would be to judge one of his "non-computer" works. The real question here may be whether it would ever be possible to find "deep structure" in any "recombinant" music, computer-generated or otherwise, and whether that structure could be considered original rather than "borrowed." If the answer is yes, then the Cope-EMI results must be judged as having failed; if the answer is no, then Smoliar's evaluation procedure must be brought into question. In any case, I find it difficult to see how it can serve us in looking at other work in the field, especially given the difficulties others have had in applying such linguistically-based concepts of structure to non- tonal, or post-tonal music. [4] I would also briefly like to take issue with Smoliar's claim that "whether or not music *has* a deep structure, much of our response, as individuals, is to surface features," and that it therefore follows that "audiences listen to *performances* rather than *compositions*." This is a bold statement, and is, unfortunately, unsupported in his article, apart, one assumes, from introspection as a result of attending live performances of EMI-generated music. Based on conclusions drawn from my own introspection, I am inclined to agree that the quality of a performance can be very convincing, whatever the "quality" of the music, particularly for the first hearing. It has been my experience, however, that repeated hearings of a piece (and for the sake of the argument, I am speaking only of live performances) tend to clarify the strengths and/or weaknesses of the music, and to build up an analytical-perceptual image of the music that would include something of the deep structure, if there is one. Therefore (and thank goodness!), it is still possible to distinguish (if not right away, then at least with time, given patience and good-will) music which "has come from a struggling genius, a commercial hack, chance decisions, or even a computer program," not to mention music by that irreducible entity, Mozart, from the would-be's and wanna-be's. ===================== 1. Smoliar, S. "Computers Compose Music, But Do We Listen." mto.94.0.6 (January 1994). 2. *Multimedia Modeling.* World Scientific. ========================================== AUTHOR: Littlefield, Richard C. TITLE: Code and Context: A Commentary on Roeder's Article KEYWORDS: code, communication, context, semiotics, sign, supplement REFERENCE: mto.93.0.5.roeder.art Richard C. Littlefield School of Music Baylor University PO Box 97408 Waco, TX 76798 Richard_Littlefield@Baylor.edu [1] Did a deconstruction, not destruction (!), of the sign never take place? Is the resurrection of a certain (French) semiology inevitable? Is the tension between a Saussurean-Hjelmslevian-linguistic conception of semiosis and that of a Peircean-phenomenological conception anywhere more evident than in Roeder's text? Do *sign-functions* (ex)communicate? Is the appeal to self-awareness blind on purpose or by accident? Do *code* and *context* arise at one and the same time, and if so, how and why? A first reading or "skimming" of Roeder's text might prompt these and related questions, which we shall try to answer. I encourage the reader, now predisposed to ask these questions, to (re)read Roeder's article, "Toward a Semiotic Evaluation of Music Analyses." This reading will both refresh your memory of his text and permit me to avoid a too-lengthy summary of his article. My comments will however entail a *slow* summary cum analysis, one that brings Nattiez, Eco, and Roeder into dialogue with each other, in order to call attention constantly to the rabbit-like -- darting by and ever- populating -- nature of signs, codes, and contexts throughout Roeder's article. I focus mainly on theoretical matters, though his article certainly deserves equal attention to its practical applications. My interpolations mean to highlight certain cuttings and delimitations that appear in concert, but not always on the same stage, with an unsettled conception of *code* and accompanied, *sotto voce*, by *context*. [2] A brief sketch of the Roeder would include at least the following: He pursues "an agenda, suggested by Nattiez: to 'interrogate the different methodologies practiced in music analysis' " (Nattiez, 238; Roeder, note 1). This is a meta-theoretical enterprise for which semiotics, and specifically Eco's theory of codes, offers a "well-developed [notice: not necessarily an unwavering] foundation for discussing some important problems of specifically musical [one must draw a line, and not the last] philosophy and aesthetics" (Roeder, par. 1). Another line quickly appears: Roeder is not concerned with" how meaning varies from one analysis to another," nor with Nattiez's (1990) latest reworking of the poietic-neutral-esthesic model (note 1). Roeder's text struggles to remain on what Nattiez would call the neutral level, which purportedly has nothing to do with value-free analysis but is that level at which technical analysis proper can be carried out and which deals with specifically-musical stuff (motives, rhythms, etc.), a place that has been axiologically neutered, excised of values. Roeder has more "modest goals" (note 1): the refinement [the winnowing away of the dross or the non-pertinent] of the meanings of theoretical concepts, recognition of how some types of musical discourse are "indeed analytical" (he will demonstrate this with a decoding/encoding of Schumann's literary-critical rendering of Schubert's Opus 33), recognition of "similarities and contrasts among different modes of analysis," and, last but for us in no way least, defining [circumscribing, putting into place] "more precisely the limits [more lines drawn] of any particular [the limits make it particular, its very own] analytical approach" (par. 4). Responsible, diligent analysts, theorists, and theoreticians should ask, " 'What do the signs we use to analyze music mean?'; . . . for it seems essential that as professional interpreters of music we should constantly evaluate the accuracy and efficacy of the discourse we use' (par. 2). A current mood of self-consciousness in music analysis, to which I and others have tried to add, welcomes such constant evaluations (see Littlefield 1991, Littlefield and Neumeyer 1992, and Krims forthcoming). To help us better understand "why evaluating music analysis is important, and how semiotics can help (par. 3)," Roeder explains those bits of Eco's theory of semiotics (1976) that will be of use in this project. I reproduce these bits, and their necessary equivocations, for their own sake and because we shall reconsider (rewrite) them near the close of my comments. [3] Eco's codes, which will provide "the basis for analyzing the structure of meaning" in certain types of music-analytical representation (Roeder, abstract), form part of a more general theory of *semiotics*. Roeder defines semiotics as the activity that "describes the structure of meaning" (par. 1). This delimitation of semiotics is not the classical definition (from Aristotle to Aquinas to Locke to Saussure and even to Eco, with many others in between), which has semiotics as the study of signs. In what seems to be a counter-productive move, Roeder's definition of semiotics leans toward the structure of meaning; and meaning, a little later, will be viewed implicitly as meaning that arises in communication -- that is, meaning exchanged between "real" and/or theoretical conscious- nesses (one could say "interpretants" if this concept of Peirce, available on Nattiez's esthesic level, were allowed to enter the scene). Nor does semiotics necessarily entail the study of communication, which is Roeder's/Eco's synonym for "signification" (see par. 3), nor the study of the structure of meaning. Meaning, as studied by semantics, necessarily involves the action of signs; but the action of signs need not involve communication. This latter takes us into a semiotics of communication first and most explicitly rendered by Roman Jakobson and others of the Prague Circle, certainly not Saussure, who would have viewed this as "mentalism," and only in some ways by Charles Sanders Peirce's category of the interpretant (interpreting sign in the receiver's mind) -- a crucial aspect of Eco's theory but a shadowy one in Roeder's. Despite disagreements in what constitutes semiosis, the action of signs, semiotics has a common preoccupation: the *sign* -- something that stands for something else, in the classical formulation by Thomas Aquinas -- is the proper object of any activity calling itself semiotics. Roeder quotes Eco on the sign: "A *sign* (or, more properly, a *sign-function*) arises every time an 'element of an expression plane [is] conventionally correlated to one (or several) elements of a content plane' " (par. 3). *Signification* (action of signs in communication -- Roeder's necessary circumscription of semiosis, by means of whatever unargued code) comes about from the "correlation of two distinct [again, no leakage, clearly defined limits] formal systems." These are the *syntactic* and the *semantic* systems: the former is the *expression* or *signifier* plane or space; the latter is the *content* or *signified*. The syntactic system is an "interplay of empty positions and mutual oppositions"; the semantic system is "a set of possible communicative contents" (par. 3, quoting Eco). These contents are usually a "culturally-determined set [culture plays the context-maker here] of notions about the continuum of experience" (ibid.). And what correlates the two systems such that signification will "arise" (a word apt for a resurrection of 60s semiology and which saturates Roeder via Eco)? -- the *codes*, with which this paragraph began, and which now get two paragraphs of their own. [4] What are the codes? "A *code* is a collection of sign-functions linking a syntactic system with a semantic system" (par. 3). But, then, is not the code a sign? For a little earlier in the same paragraph we read: "A *sign* (or, more properly, a *sign-function*) arises [comes to our attention, raises itself up] every time 'an element of an expression plane [is] conventionally correlated to one (or several) elements of a content plane' " (Roeder quoting Eco, par. 3). Where this sign arises, of course, is the province of the esthesic level and the "reader," which Eco will acknowledge in a later study and which Roeder's text takes for granted. For our purposes, we merely note the (undelimitable) conflation of the terms sign, sign-function, and code: the code (a sign or, "more properly," a sign-function) is a collection of sign-functions linking a syntactic system (comprised of "markers" and "elements" which are taken to be self-evident in Roeder's text) with a semantic system (unequivocally musical "events" and "psychophysical properties" [par. 4]). Once these elements are linked, and signification "arises," a sign-function exists, though not the same sign-function that brought the sign-function into existence. (The linkage of the two systems *conventionally*, by rule or pact, also slips a little in the course of the text. In paragraph 16, on correlations between prose and music, linkage is established by *likenesses* -- the banished Peirce would say, by iconic relations -- between signifier and signified. But I limit myself to the codes for now.) Though in his note 1 Roeder gives a pertinent distillation of Nattiez's objection to Eco's notion of codes, let us read Nattiez's own words, with which he points out the double bind in Eco: ". . . meaning cannot simultaneously be both the relation between signifier and signified . . . *and* a fixed, stable position within a system" (Nattiez, 23). In other words, if you define meaning -- the aroused sign-function stimulated by a codifying sign-function whose own arousal is caused by something in the shadows, perhaps another, more promiscuous code, since an interpreting subject has been disallowed -- as a relation, how can you invoke a space of *fixed*, univocal markers and events that communicate among themselves by means of a code which is itself a relation or function? You cannot. If every relation is unique, among markers-in-themselves, events, elements, components, and so on, then the codes must be "multiplied endlessly" in order to describe the signifier- signified couplings (Nattiez, 23). A practical example, from Roeder's description of pitch-integer semiosis (par. 5): "The code correlates the two systems so that each integer [unit of the syntactic system] conventionally denotes a distinct pitch [unit of the semantic system]." Not "the" code, but "this particular code in this particular instance," on Nattiez's view. It seems to me Nattiez is correct in concluding that Eco could have found his way out of this impasse if he had acknowledged the esthesic (reception, perception, apperception, dwelling of the interpretant) and poietic (compositional, circumstances of creation, production) levels. For in so doing, one could point with some justification to these, more permeable (an earlier semiology would say attuned to diachrony), positions of the tripartition, allowing them to resolve any inconsistencies that arise on the neutral level (Nattiez, in his latest work, renames the neutral level the *trace*, in recognition of its tenuous ontological status). Acknowledgement of the poietic and esthesic levels need not result in their objectification and systematiz- ing into something like a neutral level, for the "*circumstances of communication* are as infinite in number as those of the interpretant [the interpreting sign that arises in the mind when the latter receives signals; the moment of decoding]" (Nattiez, 25). [5] Nevertheless, the code, however illogical or plurivocal, is essential to Roeder's/Eco's project, for it alone "establishes [marks off territory for] the correlation of an expression plane . . . with a content plane" and thus determines (lays down the law, a Napoleonic code) that "a given array of syntactic signals refers back . . . to a given 'pertinent' segmentation of the semantic system" (Eco in Roeder, par. 3). The code "apportions" (par. 8), divides up the lots; it "correlates" concepts, weds opposing oppositions, puts them into contact with each other. It draws up the prenuptial agreement by setting limits, it *confines as it defines*. Far too briefly put, the code makes possible the *context*, the little-sung hero of Roeder's text, whom we shall hear from shortly. In Eco/Roeder the code, that informative if slippery match-maker, reports back to us, with data that will help us keep our discourse honest, our representational language more transparent, our models more distinct, efficacious, and accurate, and thus more attractive. [6] We have, as early as the second paragraph of the present commentary, seen (always necessary) lines of demarcation appear in Roeder's text -- semiotics is this not that; talk of specifically musical in contradistinc- tion to not specifically musical discourse; the deepest cut, the placing of the theory itself on the neutral level; "refinements" of meanings; and so on. Are these delineations theorized in the text, and what have they to do with the codes, who apparently will associate (anyone) with anyone? Tucked away at the end of the theoretical exposition (of semiotics, of bits of Eco's theory, of the ways a revenant semiology, like Scrooge's spectre, can help fine tune discourse about music) we find: "The particular contexts or circumstances [which Nattiez points out are infinite in number] in which the sign-function arises *also* [my emphasis] affect its meaning" (par. 3). Also? Not crucially? As if context were so manifestly "there"! But let us proceed. Eco states, and my interpola- tions are carefully weighed: "a sign-function is established by the code [another, linking kind of sign-function] between [and the code makes possible this 'between' by establishing, separating yet conjoining] a given set [the code giveth and the code taketh away] of syntactic markers, *both taken as a whole*" (Eco in Roeder, par. 3; my emphasis). The content plane must be cut off clearly from the syntactic plan; the two planes must wed and become one (taken as a whole); and the code performs the ceremony (correlates the two systems; par. 5). [7] If I have any one "point" to make in this commentary, it is that "context" is not just one condition among many that affect the meaning of the sign, however construed (as position, as marker, as code, as sign- function). Context does not merely "also," in the adding-to sense, affect the meaning of the sign; it "also" makes possible the sign. Context defines by confining. We can hear the voice of context, soft yet authoritative, throughout Roeder's text: "restricting [confining, contextualizing] and schematizing images curtails [limits, sets boundaries on] their ambiguity and thereby enhances [highlights the borders of] their denotative clarity as sign-vehicles [signifiers]," because "sign-functions arise [again, of their own volition] to the extent that the sign-vehicles are arranged [marked-off, take their place] in clear patterns [clear to whom? and in what context?]" (par. 10). Example 2a "shows some musical dimensions [contexts, spaces] in which oppositions can be defined [no defining without confining]." Into this latter creeps a certain circularity: how can you *not* find pairings, matches arranged by the codes, between the syntactic and semantic "dimensions" or contexts, after you have decided in advance that there *will be* a context of oppositions, that there will be two systems, each calling out to the other, like Fetis's *appellant* tones, each confined and defined, at one and the same time, by a code. The two systems, so often seen together in public as it were, are bound to be linked in the public imagination, if the code has its way (and it always does, if the message of Gestalt psychology and aesthetics via Gombrich and others has validity). Further on, and skipping many interim examples, we read that using verbal images to signify music works best when the images are "constrained by the overall scene [context]" (par.18). Here Schumann is describing some Schubert waltzes in terms of characters and setting at a masked ball (a highly constrained social context), and where Roeder is describing the waltzes as a highly constrained (codified) musical genre. Otherwise connotations would run rampant; the possible correspondences (or correlations) between signifier and signified would exceed our ability to keep track of them; the codes would get out of hand. There follows an excursus, welcome but shocking in the context of a presentation fixed so rigidly on the neutral level, into the poietic level: intriguing speculations on possible motivations for Schumann's choice of images in his literary rendering of the Schubert (pars. 17-20). A final exhortation asks us to "continue to identify [by means of codes, one presumes] the limitations [we should delimit the borders of the borders] of analytical paradigms that are [and they all are] accepted by tradition, convention, or default" (par. 22). I would second this motion, adding that what is left out or suppressed, ex- communicated, during this communication between the signifier and signified, that which makes possible that strange and violent linkage, should receive equal attention (see Littlefield 1993). [8] Let me hasten to point out that the question-issue-problem of context returns to life here in tandem with and inseparable from the signifier-signified team that one had thought forever dislocated by deconstruction, "New" historicism, feminist critiques and many other 'isms. I had forgotten the urgency with which Derrida and others encouraged vigilance against the resurgence of "logocentrism," appeals to *presence*, in all its guises; here, a certain structuralism, the signifier/signified pairing, the sign as a "whole," stable markers and components in clearly-defined systems, and so forth. In their assault on the concept of the sign, Derrida's texts have time and again pointed out the "supplemental logic" of seemingly incidental terms, such as "context" in the context of the Roeder, being called in both to add-to and to constitute, be contingent and necessary, at one and the same time (see, for example, Derrida 1967 and 1987). In the Roeder: no code, no context; no context, no code; no code, no sign; no sign, no semiotics; no semiotics, fuzzy interpretation. What fascinates me is the surface simplicity, the apparent cogency, the matter-of-factness with which Roeder's text offers us a "tool" for getting straight our representa- tions of musical structure. A music theorist somewhere said that the business of theory was not to be true, only useful (or words to that effect). And "dependability" has certainly replaced "verifiability" or truth value in some areas of psychological testing. Perhaps this blindness, purposeful or accidental, is the price one pays for insight, as Paul de Man has told us. I would like to see many more practical examples, analytic applications, clearly laid out as in Roeder's essay, of the codes used to make clear the terms of our music-analytic representa- tions. "Interpretation," says Geoffrey Hartman, "is like football: you spot a hole and you go through." One should take the ball and run with it. References Derrida, Jacques. 1967. That Dangerous Supplement. In his *Of Grammatology*. Trans. Gayatri Spivak. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. --------. 1987. Parergon. In his *The Truth in Painting*. Trans. Geoff Bennington and Ian McLeod. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Eco, Umberto. 1976. *A Theory of Semiotics*. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Krims, Adam. Forthcoming. A Sketch for Post-Structuralist Music Theory. *Current Musicology*. Littlefield, Richard. 1991. A Way out of Schoenberg's Opus 15, No. 5. Paper presented at the national meeting of the Society for Music Theory in Cincinnati. 1 November. --------. 1993. Framing the Work of Music. In *On the Borderlines of Semiosis*, ed. Eero Tarasti. Helsinki: International Semiotics Institute. Littlefield, Richard and David Neumeyer. 1992. Rewriting Schenker: Narrative -- History -- Ideology. *Music Theory Spectrum* 14.1. Nattiez, Jean-Jacques. 1990. *Music and Discourse*. Trans. Carolyn Abbate. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Roeder, John. 1993. Toward a Semiotic Evaluation of Music Analyses. *Music Theory Online* 0.5. +=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+ 3. Reviews AUTHOR: Kopiez, Reinhard TITLE: Report on the Jahrestagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft fuer Musikpsychologie (DGM) Muenster, 10-12 September, 1993, trans. Richard Parncutt KEYWORDS: music psychology, music development Reinhard Kopiez Technische Universitaet Berlin Institut fuer Musikwissenschaft Sekretariat H 63 D-10623 Berlin Germany kopi0134@mailszrz.zrz.tu-berlin.de Translated by Richard Parncutt in collaboration with the author parncutt@music.mcgill.ca =================================================== [1] The 1993 meeting of the DGM had the theme "Musikalische Entwicklung in der Lebenszeitperspektive" (a lifespan perspective on musical development). The theme was chosen in response to the recent trend in music psychology to investigate musical ability over the entire lifespan. Here is a brief summary of the various presentations. [2] The opening talk was given by Maria Manturzewska (Warsaw, Poland), who reported a biographical long-term study of the musical careers of various Polish artists. Although the author comes from a psychometric tradition, this study employed mainly descriptive and qualitative methods (e.g., interviews). The age at which soloists, orchestral musicians, and instrumental teachers begin their early childhood lessons varies widely. In general, better players tend to have accumulated more total practice time during their lives, in agreement with the results of other, quantitative studies (some of which were reported at the same conference; a similar result was recently reported by John Sloboda in England). [3] Ralph Krampe investigated the emergence of musical expertise. How does a musical expert become expert? He criticized certain preconceptions from older research on musical talent, such as the idea that the more talented need to practise less, learn more easily, or are more internally motivated than the less talented. His approach was to reject the idealogically-loaded concept of "talent" and replace it by "deliberate practice", defined as follows: 1) Motoric practice is determined by a specific goal, and by the intention to improve skills. 2) The optimal duration of a single practice session is determined by the learner. 3) External conditions such as the search for a teacher will generally be overcome. The "deliberate practice" of a professional musician differs in these ways from the spare-time practice of a lay or hobby musician. Krampe looked at variations in the amount of time devoted to practice over the entire lifespan, taking data from several practice diaries that had been maintained for a long period. Addressing the theme of the conference, he then asked how differences between young and old experts might be explained. It appears that both younger and older experts need to devote a considerable amounts of time to "deliberate practice" if they are to maintain their skills. Practice can thus become a considerable burden, especially for older people. Experts generally accumulate more overall practice time in their lives than do lay musicians. Krampe concluded -- in agreement with Sloboda, and others in the conference -- that differences in ability depend primarily on differences in musical experience, not in-born talent. [4] Ludwig Haesler investigated the developmental origin of emotional semantics in music, from a psychoanalytic viewpoint. He suggested that both non-verbal, affective aspects and quasi-linguistic or symbolic aspects of music have their origin in the preverbal phase of an infant's emotional experience. [5] Renate Mueller advanced the thesis that young people develop aesthetically through the twin processes of self-socialization and self-professionalization. She supported her claim with reference to rap singers. A condition for the emergence of a style of music such as rap is the existence of so-called "education-free spaces" such as groups and gangs. Mueller presented a scenario of responsible media-users who develop their own cultural practices, and who often cannot easily be integrated into existing cultural theories. An important aspect of self- socialization is the presentation of one's identity to others. For this purpose, young people often become members of groups that are defined by their musical taste. Mueller suggested that people who are themselves musically socialized are consequently more tolerant toward other musical styles. Missing from Mueller's theory, however, was a clear articulation of the link between two different, simultaneous functions of spare-time activities: first, the creation of a pleasant situation for oneself, and second, the self-socializing function of spare-time activities. Another theoretical difficulty is the issue of whether and how individual self-socialization can be separated from the dynamics of a group. [6] At the end of the first day, the Swiss violist Walter Faehndrich gave a fascinating concert, improvizing non-thematic, minimalistic music based on minute timbral variations. The performance incorporated both traditional and novel bowing techniques, in combination with psychoacoustic effects. [7] The second day began with a talk by Roland Hafen, who spoke on behalf of Hans-Guenther Bastian, Director of the recently founded Institut fuer Begabungsforschung in Paderborn. Hafen and Bastian believe that talent is inseparable from overall personal development, and should be researched from that viewpoint. The immediate aim of their research is to develop a new test of musical talent, and to apply their findings to the counselling of young, highly gifted musicians. The institute's research is based on the credo that "musical talent is multiple talent". A suitable research design should therefore account for many variables. This idea was supported by school psychologist Adam Kormann's insightful report on the social situation of talented children and their parents. Kormann looked specifically at special music classes held in Berlin primary schools. [8] Klaus-Ernst Behne reported some first results of a long-term study on the development of musical experience among young people. He aims to explore changes in the subjective experience of music between the ages of 10 and 16 years. So far, the study has only been running for one year. A preliminary result is that, at age 12, children have already learned to use music in a specific way. For example, they can use music as a source of comfort. However, early musical preferences are seldom stable, and vary particularly strongly in the case of art music. A further finding is that any salient response to music (e.g., "music always makes me sad") tends to result in a strong overall interest in music. [9] Gertrud Orff, a music therapist, spoke on the musical development of children with various disabilities. Photos from her therapy sessions demonstrated long-term, positive behavioral changes in depressed children. The following talk by Guenter Adler was devoted to the musical development of adults. By means of structured interviews, he investigated adults' motivation to learn a musical instrument. A content analysis based on categories from motivation theory revealed a very complex structure of reasons for beginning music lessons in later life. However, the strongly individual nature of the data made it hard to reach any general conclusions. [10] In his presentation on social functions of musical performance in the area of human relationships, Heiner Gembris emphasized that musical development is still largely a "terra incognita." He investigated the extent to which musical interests affect attractiveness, by analyzing personal interviews and the personal columns of newspapers, and referring to previous research on attractiveness. He concluded that similar musical tastes attract. Moreover, the communicative function of music is more important for lay musicians than is the quality of the performance. Music can often catalyze further development of an individual, for example, in situations of personal crisis. [11] The last two papers that afternoon were by Guenther Roetter (Muenster) and Soeren Nielzen (Lund, Sweden). Roetter discussed the influence of age on professional musicians' perception of time. In contrast to existing theories that assume either positive or negative deviations in time perception with increasing age, his experimental study demonstrated a more precise estimation of time intervals by older people. Nielzen investigated the effect of various psychological illnesses on the judgment of musical emotions. Depending on the nature of their illness, his patients ascribed different meanings to both short musical pieces and to single noises lasting less than one second. [12] The evening presentation on the second day was held by the psychoanalyst Harm Willms. He spoke on the power of music over people, illustrating his remarks with examples from poetry and from the visual arts. The idea of musical support for the unification of two people (e.g., Orpheus und Euridice) is a very old one. In Shakespeare, we encounter the idea that music can heal insanity. Music frees people from powerlessness in the face of nature or their own feelings, bringing them from a state of fear or ecstacy back to the human level. In Thomas Mann's "Zauberberg", music is again a means of uniting with a loved one. [13] The third and final day of the meeting was devoted to research reports on topics other than the main theme of the conference. Andreas Lehmann (Tallahassee, USA) addressed the subject of sight-reading. In contrast to older research methods, he selected a group of pianists of a uniform standard. He simulated a real playing situation by giving subjects a melody, asking them to play a piano accompaniment at the same time and at a constant speed. Research on expert performance explains why experienced piano accompanists are better sight-readers than young students: Sightreading skill is related to the total time spent sight-reading over the entire lifespan. Sightreading skill may thus be relatively independent of general musical talent. [14] Joerg Langner presented a computer model that explains musical hearing in terms of psychoacoustic measures of tension. He has developed software based on theories of constructivism and connectionism. The program learns musical structures, and models auditory expectations via rules of self- organization. [15] Peter Linzenkirchner presented research on stage fright, based on observations of young participants in a well-known German music competition ("Jugend musiziert"). Surprisingly, no effect of habituation was found, suggesting that stage fright may be a permanent burden to most musicians -- regardless of the duration of their performance experience. However, the effect of stage fright on performance standard is only weakly negative; and personality may have a considerable effect. [16] The generally high standard of the research reports and the discussions, combined with the spacious atmosphere of the castle in which the conference took place, ensured the success of the event. [17] Those interested in the activities of the DGM should contact Prof. Dr. Heiner Gembris, Musikwissenschaftliches Seminar, Universitaet Muenster, D-48149 Muenster, Germany. ============================================ 4. Announcements LancMAC 94 Lancaster University Music Analysis Conference 1994 Call for papers LancMAC 94 will take place on 23-25 September 1994. Proposals are invited for papers. The conference will not be thematically organised P the aim is to present the best examples of current work in music analysis, in an internation- al context. Programme committee: Anthony Pople (chair) Jonathan Dunsby Roger Parker Robert Pascall Abstracts of 300-500 words should be sent to the Conference Director, Anthony Pople, at the address given below. They should be written in English and postmarked no later than Friday 11 March 1994. Rooms with en suite facilities will be available. Further information will be made available later. For specific enquiries please contact: Dr Anthony Pople Music Department Lancaster University Bailrigg Lancaster LA1 4YW tel. +44 524 593774 fax +44 524 593939 email mua002@cent1.lancs.ac.uk ----------------------------------- NEH Summer Seminar AMERICAN SONG AND AMERICAN CULTURE IN THE 19TH CENTURY College teachers and independent scholars are invited to apply to participate in this 7-week seminar in Baltimore, Maryland. Dates: June 20 to August 5, 1994 Location: Peabody Conservatory of Music Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore Maryland Directors: John Spitzer and Ronald G. Walters Stipend: $3,600 Application Deadline: March 1, 1994 The seminar will study 19th-century American song as a manifestation of popular culture. Songs will be examined in the contexts of political and social history, the history of the entertainment industry, and 20th-century theories of popular culture. Participants will work with primary sources: sheet music in the collections of the Baltimore-Washington area. The seminar aims to attract teachers and scholars from diverse fields: historians, musicologists, librarians, folklorists, and others. It is designed for teachers at 4-year colleges, independent scholars, persons in non-academic employment, and university teachers in departments that do not offer a Ph.D. Applicants must be U.S. citizens or foreign nationals who have resided in the U.S. for at least 3 years immediately preceding the application deadline. For more information and/or application materials, respond via one of the routes below. Include your current mailing address, so we can send you an application. E-mail:amsong@jhunix.hcf.jhu.edu Write: John Spitzer, Peabody Conservatory, One E. Mt. Vernon Place, Baltimore, MD, 21202 Call: 410-659-8158 Fax: 410-685-0657 John Spitzer and Ron Walters ---------------------------------- ==== PRELIMINARY CALL FOR PAPERS AND PARTICIPATION ==== I BRAZILIAN SYMPOSIUM ON COMPUTER MUSIC August 3-4, 1994 Caxambu, Minas Gerais Brazil The 1st Brazilian Symposium on Computer Music, promoted by NUCOM (Brazilian Computer Music Society), will take place during the 1994 Meeting of the SBC (Brazilian Computer Science Society) organized by the Computer Science Department of the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG). The objective of the symposium is to discuss technical aspects of the specification, designing, implementation, and evaluation of computer systems for music, as well as to present ongoing research works in the field. The symposium is aimed primarily at stimulating the exchange of ideas among computer scientists and musicians, but we also welcome interested researchers from other areas such as electronics, linguistics, psychology, physics, and education. Main areas of interest: ----------------------- - Systems and languages for composition - Signal processing and sound transformation - Automated music analysis - Artificial intelligence and music - User interface and instrument design - Notation systems - Psychoacoustics and cognitive models - Systems and languages for sound synthesis Other topics, not covered above, will be consired by the program comittee. Program comittee: ----------------- . Aluizio Arcela, University of Brasilia, Brazil. . Conrado Silva, University of Brasilia, Brazil. . Eduardo Miranda, University of Edinburgh, UK. . Jamary Oliveira, Federal Univesity of Bahia, Brazil. . Wilson de Padua de Paula Filho, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Organizing comittee: -------------------- . Mauricio Alvares Loureiro (Symposium chair), Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. E-mail: mauricio@dcc.ufmg.br . Geber Ramalho (technical coordinator), University of Paris, France. E-mail: ramalho@laforia.ibp.fr . Nivio Ziviani (SBC/94 chair), Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. E-mail: nivio@dcc.ufmg.br Preliminary Program Schedule (subject to change): ------------------------------------------------ 03/08: - 08:00 - 12:00, Reception and registration - 14:00 - 15:30, Special talks 1 - 15:30 - 18:00, Paper section 1 - 20:00 - 21:00, Concert 1 04/08: - 09:00 - 12:00, Paper section 2 - 14:00 - 15:30, Special talks 2 - 15:30 - 17:00, Paper section 3 - 17:00 - 18:30, Round table discussion: "Computer Music in Brazil" - 20:00 - 21:00, Concert 2 Submissions ------------ Abstract submissions should not exceed 400 words. They can be sent by surface or eletronic mail (ASCII format). Papers can be submited and presented in Portuguese or English. Composers interested in submiting a piece for the concerts should contact the program comittee. Deadlines and important dates (to be confirmed): ------------------------------------------------ April 25, 1994 - Submission of abstracts May 25, 1994 - Notification of acceptance June 15, 1994 - Submission of the final paper Contact address and submissions: -------------------------------- Mauricio Alvares Loureiro Departamento de Ciencia da Computacao Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG Belo Horizonte, MG Brazil E-mail: mauricio@dcc.ufmg.br ------------------------------------ In addition to being available by subscription, MTO is available through Harvard University's Arts and Sciences Gopher. At your system's prompt, Type: gopher fas-gopher@husc.harvard.edu Choose item number 10 from the main menu (Publications and News). From there the menus are self-explanatory. Currently, all MTO issues, documentation, and software are in one large, alphabetical directory, which is not very convenient for locating files for viewing. This spring the MTO archive into separate categories. The planned, revised structure would be as follows: 1. documentation (/docs) 2. software (/software) 3. MTO issues (/issues) Once implemented, this structure will actually be invisible to gopher users, who will simply select items from menus: 1. DOCUMENTATION The main MTO documentation files are: mto-guide.txt (general guide to MTO) software.txt (explanation of software for viewing musical examples) authors.txt (guidelines for authors) policy.txt (MTO editorial policy) 2. SOFTWARE MTO distributes musical examples as GIFs (Graphical Interchange Format), which require a GIF viewer. GIF viewers are readily available, as shareware, for both IBM/compatible (DOS and Windows) and Macintosh computers, and are sometimes included as part of telecommunications programs (e.g. in Procomm Plus for Windows). MTO makes available the following shareware programs: IBM/compatible DOS: C-Show (filename: cshowa.exe) Windows: WinGif (filename: wingif14.exe) Macintosh GIF Converter (filenames: gifcon.hqx, gifcodoc.hqx) In order to send graphical files over the networks, they must be specially encoded, and require decoding by MTO subscribers before they can be viewed. A separate piece of software is necessary for the decoding process: IBM/compatible UUdecode (filename: uurem413.exe) Macintosh UUtool (filenames: uutool.hqx, uutool.txt) Consult the file "software.txt" for complete information about software. 3. ISSUES MTO items are contained in files with names in the following format: mto.yy.v.i.author.xxx, where "yy" = the last two digits of the year; "v" = volume number; "i" = issue number; "author" = author's name (omitted for some files), and "xxx" stands for one of the following MTO FileTypes: art = article fig = ASCII figures accompanying articles gif = musical examples as GIF files tlk = commentaries on articles (talk) rev = reviews dis = new dissertation listings job = employment opportunities ann = announcements [No author's name in "dis," "job," and "ann" items] Examples: mto.93.0.2.london.art mto.94.0.6.job, mto.93.0.4.dis Tables of contents have standardized filenames in the form: mto.yy.v.i.toc, "yy," "v," and "i," having the same meanings as explained above (example: mto.93.0.4.toc). Complete issues have similar standardized filenames: mto.pak.yy.v.i (example: mto.pak.94.0.6). The current issue and current table of contents always have the filenames mto.current and toc.current, respectively. The file mto.index contains a listing of all files containing MTO items. As explained in the MTO Guide, all files are available through anonymous FTP at the site husc4.harvard.edu, in the directory pub/smt/mto. LoginID is "anonymous," and password is your email address. REMEMBER: the planned, categorized directory structure is not yet in place! Those who use the Harvard Gopher or FTP to look at or retrieve MTO files will find all items--documentation, software, and issues--in one large alphabetical listing. All subscribers will receive notification once the new structure is in place. Send questions to the General Editor at one of the addresses below. Lee A. Rothfarb, General Editor mto-editor@husc.harvard.edu mto-editor@husc.bitnet ======================================= 5. Employment POSITION: Assistant Professor of Music Education/Choral Music. Tenure Track Position RESPONSIBILITIES: Teaching choral methods, supervising student teachers, and conducting a variety of choral ensembles. Other teaching assignments dependent upon interests and qualifications. QUALIFICATIONS: Highly successful secondary teaching experience required. Collegiate experience and doctorate preferred. Broad background in choral/vocal music education and performance, with possible interests in jazz or multi-cultural music or current music technologies. SALARY: Competitive and commensurate with qualifications. EFFECTIVE DATE: Fall Semester, 1994 APPLICATION: Send letter of application, vita, and three current recommendations to Professor Henry H, Leck Music Search Committee Chair Jordan College of Fine Arts Butler University 4600 Sunset Avenue Indianapolis, IN 46208 SCREENING; Review of applications will continue until position is filled. ------------------------------------ NOTICE OF FACULTY VACANCY IN ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTER MUSIC The Conservatory of Music at Oberlin College invites applications for a non-continuing, full-time position in the Technology in Music and Related Arts Program (TIMARA) for the first and second semesters, 1994-95. The Conservatory of Music is America's oldest school dedicated to the training of professional musicians. Founded in 1865, it was the first college-affiliated conservatory in the United States. Its students are enrolled in undergraduate programs leading to the Bachelor of Music in performance, composition, music education, music history, historical performance, electronic and computer music, and jazz studies; graduate programs leading to a master of music in conducting, historical performance, opera theater, master of music education, or master of music in teaching. Performance and artist diplomas are also offered. The Conservatory and College have earned national reputations of excellence based upon the quality of the student body (drawn from every state in the union and abroad), fine faculty, and excellent facilities. The TIMARA Program offers a four-year curriculum leading to a Bachelor of Music degree in electronic and computer music. There are two full time teaching faculty, a full time music engineer, and a part time teacher of studio recording. There are 25-30 majors. The individual appointed will have general responsibility for and will perform the following specific duties: 1. Teaching courses in analog and digital sound synthesis, computer music software, and multi-track recording techniques. 2. Participation in meetings and activities of the TIMARA Program Committee and the Conservatory of Music. Qualifications include: 1. Advanced degree. A doctorate in composition or computer music is preferred but persons nearing completion of a doctorate will also be considered. 2. Demonstrated experience and achievement in digital and analog signal processing, sound synthesis, computer programming, and composition. 3. Experience with interactive computer music systems in performance. Interested persons should submit credentials to Karen L. Wolff, Dean, Oberlin College Conservatory of Music, Oberlin, Ohio 44074. All credentials should be postmarked by March 1, 1994 to ensure consideration. Those received after that date will be considered until the position is filled. The appointment will be made at the rank of Instructor or Assistant Professor. Salary will be commensurate with experience and qualifications. ------------------------------------- The Experimentalstudio der Heinrich-Strobel-Stiftung / Freiburg - Germany has a job-opening in the field of live-electronics. The studio is renowned for its pioneering efforts in the field of live-electronics and is a leading institution in this area for composition, reasearch and performance. The studio is affiliated with the South West German radiostation. Prerequisites are a degree in music with emphasis on electronics and audio technology, a high level of competence in software-development and computer applications for music, experience as a musician, (electronic) instrumentalist and "Klangregisseur" (artistic competence combined with audio engineering knowledge) in the domain of contemporary music ("avantgarde"). Responsibilities will include to cooperate with composers and musicians in the realization of works with live-electronics, to do the "Klangregie" for concerts, and to develop software geared towards artistic applications in conjunction with new hardware-developments of the studio. Pay will be according to background and experience and is based on the pay-scale of German radio stations (very good social benefits etc.) Inquiries should be sent to the director of the Experimentalstudio: Andre Richard Experimentalstudio des SWF Kartaeuserstr. 45 79102 Freiburg GERMANY Fax: Germany 761-380 82 75 =============================================== 6. New Dissertations AUTHOR: Castine, Peter TITLE: "Set Theory Objects: Abstractions for Computer-Aided Analysis and Composition of Serial and Atonal Music" INSTITUTION: Technische Universitaet Berlin, Fachbereich 1, Fachgebiet Kommunikationswissenschaften, Sekr. EN-8, Einsteinufer 17, D-10623 Berlin, Germany BEGUN: Let's not mention this COMPLETION: January, 1994 ABSTRACT: The set theoretical approach to music analysis and composition is an area of research that has spawned numerous computer applications. This paper is concerned with a project in which two goals were pursued: (a) developing a unified collection of computer tools that would support, as far as possible, all methods described in the literature and (b) providing this support in a way which would be accessible to a larger number of musicians than previous software projects. The Contemporary Music Analysis Package, a collection of programs developed by Craig R. Harris and Alexander R. Brinkman for the Unix operating system, proved an excellent starting point for the first goal. The Macintosh computer system, a widely available computer with many characteristics that, properly employed, support superior human-computer interaction, was chosen as a platform for this project. The introductory chapter provides a more precise statement of the project goals. This is followed, in the second chapter, by an survey of set theory and the methods it employs. The third chapter reviews currently available software for set theoretic applications. The fourth chapter describes the software designed. Implementation is discussed in the fifth chapter. This is followed, in the final chapter, by a report of the current state of the CMAP for Macintosh project and plans for further development. KEYWORDS: Set Theory, Computer Programs, Object-Oriented Programming, User Interface Design, Unix, Macintosh, Forte. TOC: 1. Introduction 1 1.1 An Evaluation 1 1.2 Computers as Music Analysts 2 1.3 Computers as Analytic Aids 3 1.4 The Contemporary Music Analysis Package 5 1.5 So, what is this about? 5 2. The Set Theoretical Approach to Music Analysis and Composition 7 2.1 Pitches, Pitch Equivalence, and Pitch Classes 10 2.2 Intervals, Interval Equivalence, and Interval Class 13 2.3 Ordered Sets, Unordered Sets, Rows, and Cycles 15 2.4 Set Membership and Cardinality 17 2.5 Twelve Tone Operations 18 2.6 Properties of Unordered Sets 27 2.7 Set Equivalence and Set Class 45 2.8 Set Class Relations 52 2.9 Segmentation, and Other Objections 55 3. Computer Tools Available for Set Theory 59 3.1 Survey of Available Computer Tools 60 3.2 The Contemporary Music Analysis Package 67 4. Designing User-Oriented Software for Set Theory 77 4.1 Historical Setting 80 4.2 Target Audience 82 4.3 Task Definition 83 4.4 Basic Design 89 4.5 Further Problems and Solutions 94 5. Implementing Software for Set Theory 105 5.1 Development Hardware and Compatibility Testing 105 5.2 Prototyping Software for Set Theory 107 5.3 Programming Environment 110 5.4 Data Structures for Set Theory 116 6. Current Status and Future Goals 127 6.1 Today 127 6.2 Tomorrow 129 6.3 Further Into the Future 132 Appendix 1QSet Class Tables A-1 Appendix 2QDefinitions and Theorems A-7 Appendix 3QTechnical Documentation A-23 Bibliography CONTACT: Wildganssteig 28, D-13505 Berlin, Germany Voice: (x49.30) 431-0850 e-mail: pcastine@mvax.kgw.tu-berlin.de ------------------------------------------------- AUTHOR: Samuels, Robert TITLE: Semiotics and Mahler: Analyses of Musical Signification in the Sixth Symphony INSTITUTION: Cambridge University BEGUN: 1987 COMPLETION: September 1993 ABSTRACT: This study develops a theory of musical semiotics which is then applied, using a variety of analytical techniques, to the four movements of MahlerUs Sixth Symphony. The opening chapter describes a general theory of signs, and compares this with previous attempts to frame a semiotics of music. Rather than following the theory developed by Nattiez of a Tneutral levelU of analysis, a semiotic method based on the concept of the TcodeU as found in Eco and Barthes is proposed, which rests on the definition of musical works as texts. The second chapter analyses signs whose scope of reference is limited to the musical work. This proceeds via paradigmatic analysis of motivic structure in the Andante, and represents an application of the methods of Ruwet and Nattiez to the work. The third chapter is a discussion of the semiotics of form in the Finale. An analytical reception history of the work leads to consideration of the different concepts of formal function which cause the varying interpretations of the movement in German-speaking scholarship. The fourth chapter begins the consideration of extramusical signifieds. The use of genre in the Scherzo of both the Sixth and Fifth Symphonies is discussed in relation to the cultural constructs in which it participates. The fifth chapter is an investigation of extroversive semiosis, formed by narrative accounts of the work. Focusing on the first movement, three potential narratives are proposed, corresponding to different conceptions of narrativity in recent theory. A conclusion and bibliography follow. KEYWORDS: Mahler, Semiotics, Deconstruction, Narrative, Genre, Barthes, Nattiez, Eco, Adorno TOC: 1: Theories of the Musical Sign. 2: Motive as Sign: an Analysis of the Andante. 3: Coding of Musical Form: the Finale. 4: Genre and Presupposition in the Mahlerian Scherzo. 5: Musical Narrative and the Suicide of the Symphony. 6: Conclusion. CONTACT: Robert Samuels, Department of Music, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YW, UK. Email: mua009@cent1.lancs.ac.uk Voice: (0)524-594164 Fax: (0)524-593737 ------------------------------------------- AUTHOR: Hill, David S. TITLE: The Persistence of Memory: Mode, Trope, and Difference in the Passion Chorale INSTITUTION: SUNY at Stony Brook BEGUN: 09/90 COMPLETION: 04/94 (projected) ABSTRACT: This dissertation is a study of the chorale tune known as "Herzlich tut mich verlangen," "Ach Herr, mich armen Sunder," or "O Haupt, voll Blut und Wunden." The dissertation opens with an analysis of the original composition, a secular love song by Hans Leo Hassler (Nuremburg, 1601). The analysis focuses on Hassler's piece in light of contemporaneous modal theories. Depending on which theory is considered, Hassler's piece can be read as transposed Phrygian, transposed Ionian, either, or neither. Seventeenth-century composers wrote their own settings of the melody and emphasized one or another of the tune's conflicting modal claims. J. S. Bach's many settings of the melody are then studied. The role the tune played in Bach's cantatas and Passions is considered within the context of the traditions of setting the tune that were handed down to the composer. This is a multi-disciplinary study that involves music history and theory, as well as Lutheran theology and modern literary criticism. KEYWORDS: Chorales, History of Theory, Mode, J. S. Bach, Lutheran Church, Cantatas, Passions CONTENTS: Introduction; Chapter 1 - Hassler's Melody; Chap- ter 2 - Hassler's Melody in the Sacred Vocal Rep- ertoire; Chapter 3 - Hassler's Melody as a Key- board Piece; Chapter 4 - Hassler's Melody at the Beginning of the Eighteenth Century; Chapter 5 - Bach's Use of Hassler's Melody Before the Saint Matthew Passion; Chapter 6 - The Time of the Sign: Hassler's Melody in the Saint Matthew Passion; Chapter 7 - After the Passion; Chapter 8 - Conclusions: On Mode, Trope, and Difference. CONTACT David Hill, 6 Red Cedar Cres., Brampton, Ontario, Canada L6R 1A8. Phone: 905-799-0617 Fax: 416-586-8588 E-mail: hill_d@mshri.on.ca ============================================ 7. Communications A. McNamee Wins Prize for MTO Article Ann McNamee was awarded the $1,000 Stefan And Wanda Wilk Prize for Research in Polish Music, for her Bacewicz article, which appeared MTO 0.4. *Music Theory Online* is very pleased to have been the publisher of the prize-winning essay. B. MTO Available Through the Harvard FAS Gopher MTO is now available through Harvard's FAS Gopher. For details, retrieve the file mto.94.0.7.ann (announcements). ================================================= 8. Copyright Statement [1] Music Theory Online (MTO) as a whole is Copyright (c) 1994, all rights reserved, by the Society for Music Theory, which is the owner of the journal. Copyrights for individual items published in MTO are held by their authors. Items appearing in MTO may be saved and stored in electronic or paper form, and may be shared among individuals for purposes of scholarly research or discussion, but may *not* be republished in any form, electronic or print, without prior, written permission from the author(s), and advance notification of the editors of MTO. [2] Any redistributed form of items published in MTO must include the following information in a form appropriate to the medium in which the items are to appear: This item appeared in Music Theory Online in [VOLUME #, ISSUE #] on [DAY/MONTH/YEAR]. It was authored by [FULL NAME, EMAIL ADDRESS], with whose written permission it is reprinted here. [3] Libraries may archive issues of MTO in electronic or paper form for public access so long as each issue is stored in its entirety, and no access fee is charged. Exceptions to these requirements must be approved in writing by the editors of MTO, who will act in accordance with the decisions of the Society for Music Theory. +=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+=+ END OF MTO 0.7